Translating Classical Buddhism to Modern English

The Long Discourses

1. The Great Legend[1]

Introduction

1. Thus I have heard:[2] One time, the Buddha was at the Flowering Grove Hut[3] in Jeta’s Grove of Śrāvastī. He was accompanied by a large assembly of 1,250 monks.

2. It was then that the monks gathered in the Flowering Grove Hall[4] after soliciting alms. They engaged in a discussion with each other: “Venerable monks, only the unsurpassed sage is so extraordinary! His miraculous powers are far-reaching, and his authority is tremendous. He has come to know the countless buddhas of the past who have entered nirvāṇa, broken the bonds, and eliminated idle speculation.”

3. “He also knows how many eons ago those buddhas lived as well as their names, surnames, the clans to which they were born, the meals they had, the length of their lives, and what suffering and happiness they experienced.”

4. “He also knows that those buddhas possessed such precepts, such principles,[5] such wisdom, such liberation, and such abodes.”

5. “What do you think, gentlemen? Does the Tathāgata know this by discerning well the nature of things,[6] or does he know these things because the gods come and tell him about them?”

6. The Bhagavān was in a quiet place at the time and clearly overheard the monks having that discussion with his heavenly ear. He rose from his seat, went to the Flowering Grove Hall, prepared a seat, and sat down.

7. He knew the answer, but the Bhagavān still asked them, “Monks, what have you been discussing after gathering here?” The monks then related to him what it had been.

8. The Bhagavān told the monks, “Good, good! With correct faith,[7] you’ve left home to cultivate the path, and you practice as you should. All of you have two types of conduct: The first is noble discussion of the teaching, and the second is noble silence. This discussion of yours is as it should be: ‘The Tathāgata’s miraculous powers [are far-reaching,][8] and his authority are tremendous. He fully knows the events of countless eons in the past. He knows it because he understands well the nature of things and because the gods come and tell him.’”

9. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

The Seven Buddhas

10. He again asked the monks, “Would you like to hear about the circumstances of past buddhas that the Tathāgata knows with the knowledge of past lives? I’ll tell you about them.”

The monks said, “Bhagavān, now would be a good time for it.” “We’d be glad to hear it.” “Excellent, Bhagavān!” “If there’s time for a discourse, we’ll approve of it.”

11. The Buddha told the monks, “Listen closely! Listen closely, and consider it well. I’ll discern and explain it for you.” The monks then accepted the teaching and listened.

12. The Buddha told the monks, “Ninety-one eons ago, there was a buddha named Vipaśyin who was the Tathāgata, the Arhat, that arose in the world. Furthermore, monks, thirty-one eons ago, there was a buddha named Śikhin who was the Tathāgata, the Arhat, that arose in the world. Furthermore, monks, thirty-one eons ago, there was another buddha named Viśvabhū who was the Tathāgata, the Arhat, that arose in the world. Furthermore, monks, during this present eon of fortune, there was a buddha named Krakucchanda, another who was named Kanakamuni, and another who was named Kāśyapa. Now, I’ve also achieved the supreme and complete awakening during this present eon of fortune.”

13. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Life Spans

14. “You should know that during the time of Buddha Vipaśyin, people lived for 80,000 years. During the time of Buddha Śikhin, people lived for 70,000 years. During the time of Buddha Viśvabhū, people lived for 60,000 years. During the time of Buddha Krakucchanda, people lived for 40,000 years. During the time of Buddha Kanakamuni, people lived for 30,000 years. During the time of Buddha Kāśyapa, people lived for 20,000 years. In the present time that I’ve arisen in the world, few people live more than a hundred years, and many live for less.”[10]

15. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Clans and Surnames

16. “Buddha Vipaśyin arose from a warrior clan, and his surname was Kauṇḍinya. Buddha Śikhin and Buddha Viśvabhū had the same type of clan and surname. Buddha Krakucchanda arose from a priestly clan, and his surname was Kāśyapa. Buddha Kanakamuni and Buddha Kāśyapa had the same type of clan and surname. Now, I’m a Tathāgata, an Arhat, who arose from a warrior clan, and my surname is Gautama.”[11]

17. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Trees of Awakening

18. “Buddha Vipaśyin sat under a patala tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening. Buddha Śikhin sat under a mango tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening. Buddha Viśvabhū sat under a sal tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening. Buddha Krakucchanda sat under a sirisa tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening. Buddha Kanakamuni sat under an cluster fig tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening. Buddha Kāśyapa sat under a banyan tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening. Now, I am a Tathāgata, an Arhat, who sat under a sacred fig tree and achieved the supreme and complete awakening.”[12]

19. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Congregations

20. “Tathāgata Vipaśyin taught Dharma to three congregations. The first congregation had 168,000 disciples. The second congregation had 100,000 disciples. The third congregation had 80,000 disciples. Tathāgata Śikhin taught Dharma to three congregations. The first congregation had 100,000 disciples. The second congregation had 80,000 disciples. The third congregation had 70,000 disciples. Tathāgata Viśvabhū taught Dharma to two congregations. The first congregation had 70,000 disciples, and the next congregation had 60,000 disciples. Tathāgata Krakucchanda taught Dharma to one congregation of 40,000 disciples. Tathāgata Kanakamuni taught Dharma to one congregation of 30,000 disciples. Tathāgata Kāśyapa taught Dharma to one congregation of 20,000 disciples. Now, I teach Dharma to one congregation of 1,250 disciples.”[13]

21. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Foremost Disciples

22. “The Buddha Vipaśyin had two disciples who were foremost: First was Khaṇḍa, and second was Tiṣya. The Buddha Śikhin had two disciples who were foremost: First was Abhibhū, and second was Sambhava. The Buddha Viśvabhū had two disciples who were foremost: First was Bhujiṣya, and second was Uttama. The Buddha Krakucchanda had two disciples who were foremost: First was Saṃjñin, and second was Vidhura. The Buddha Kanakamuni had two disciple who were foremost: First was Śrāvaṇa and second was Uttara. The Buddha Kāśyapa had two disciples who were foremost: First was Tiṣya, and second was Bharadvāja. Now, I have two disciples who are foremost: First is Śāriputra, and second is Maudgalyāyana.”[14]

23. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Attendants

24. “Buddha Vipaśyin had an attendant disciple named *Aśoka. The Buddha Śikhin has an attendant disciple named *Kṣāntikara. The Buddha Viśvabhū had an attendant disciple named *Upaśānta. The Buddha Krakucchanda had an attendant disciple named *Subuddhi. The Buddha Kanakamuni had an attendant disciple named *Kṣema. The Buddha Kāśyapa had an attendant disciple named *Sumitra. I have an attendant disciple named Ānanda.”[15]

25. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Sons

26. “The Buddha Vipaśyin had a son named *Susaṃvṛttaskandha. The Buddha Śikhin had a son named *Atula. The Buddha Viśvabhū had a son named *Suprabuddha. The Buddha Krakucchanda had a son named *Uttara. The Buddha Kanakamuni had a son named *Sārthavāha. The Buddha Kāśyapa had a son named *Vijitasena. Now, I have a son named Rāhula.”[16]

27. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

Their Parents and Cities

28. “The Buddha Vipaśyin’s father was named Bandhuma, and he was from a lineage of warrior kings. His mother was named Bandhuvatī, and the king ruled from a city named Bandhuvatī.”[17]

29. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

30. “The Buddha Śikhin’s father was named *Aruṇa, and he was from a lineage of warrior kings. His mother’s name was *Prabhāvātī.[19] The king ruled from a city named *Aruṇavātī.”

31. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

32. “The Buddha Viśvabhū’s father was named *Supradīpa, and he was from a lineage of warrior kings. His mother’s name was *Yaśovatī.[20] The King ruled from a city called *Anopamā.”

33. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

34. “The Buddha Krakucchanda’s father was named *Yajñadatta, and he was from a priestly clan. His mother was named *Suśākhā. The King was named *Kṣema and that king’s capitol was named *Kṣemāvatī after him.”[21]

35. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

36. “The Buddha Kanakamuni’s father was named *Mahādatta, and he was from the priestly clan. His mother’s name was *Sūttara, and at the time the king was named *Śubha. His capitol was named *Śubhavatī after the king.”[22]

37. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

38. “The Buddha Kāśyapa’s father was named *Brahmadatta, and he was from a priestly clan. His mother was named *Dhanavatī, and at the time the king was named Kṛpī.[23] The king ruled from a city called Bārāṇasī.”

39. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

40. “My father is named Śuddhodana, and he is from a lineage of warrior kings. My mother’s name is *Mahāmāyā, and the king rules from the city called Kapilavastu.”[24]

41. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

42. “These were the conditions, names, clan types, and birthplaces of those buddhas. What wise person who hears these circumstances wouldn’t rejoice and feel delighted by it?”

Bodhisattva Vipaśyin

43. The Bhagavān then told the monks, “Now, I’d like to give a talk on the events of past buddhas using the knowledge of past lives. Would you like to hear it?”

44. The monks replied, “Now is the right time. We’d be glad to hear it!”

45. The Buddha told the monks, “Listen closely! Listen closely, and consider it well. I will give you a discerning explanation.[25]

His Descent from the Tuṣita Heaven

46. “Monks, you should know the way it always is with buddhas. When his spirit descended from the Tuṣita Heaven to his mother’s womb, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin entered her right side while properly mindful and undisturbed.[26]

47. “At that moment, there was an earthquake, and a great radiance illuminated the whole world. The sun and moon couldn’t compare to its brilliance. Sentient beings that were in complete darkness saw each other and recognized where they were. When this light illuminated Māra’s palace and the gods, Śakra, Brahmā, ascetics, priests, and other sentient beings, they were all outshined by its brilliance. The radiance of those gods naturally disappeared.”

48. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

The Four Heavenly Guards

49. “Monks, you should know the way it always is with buddhas. While he was in his mother’s womb, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin was focused and undisturbed. Four gods armed with spears stood guard over his mother so that no human nor non-human could do her harm. This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

50. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

His Mother Beheld Him in Her Womb

51. He also told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When his spirit descended from the Tuṣita Heaven to his mother’s womb, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin was focused and undisturbed. His mother’s body was at ease, she didn’t have any kind of illness, and her wisdom improved.

52. “His mother looked into her womb and saw the Bodhisattva’s body with fully formed faculties. He was the color of purple gold and had no blemishes. She was like a man with eyesight looking at a pure beryl that’s transparent and lacks any obstructions to his vision. Monks, this is the way it always is with buddhas.”

53. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

His Mother Had No Desire

54. The Buddha told the monks, “[This is the way it always is with buddhas.] When his spirit descended from the Tuṣita Heaven to his mother’s womb, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin was focused and undisturbed. His mother’s heart was pure, without any notions of desire. Nor was she burned by the fire of lust. This is the way it always is with buddhas.”

55. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

His Mother Upheld the Five Precepts

56. The Buddha told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When his spirit descended from the Tuṣita Heaven to his mother’s womb, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin was focused and undisturbed. His mother upheld the five precepts, purified the religious practice, and was devoted and loving. Having accomplished these virtues, she was happy and confident. When her body broke up and her life ended, she was born in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

57. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

The Bodhisattva’s Birth

58. The Buddha told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When he was born, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin emerged from his mother’s right side. There was an earthquake, and a radiance illuminated [the whole world], just as it did when he first entered her womb. There was no place of darkness that wasn’t illuminated. This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

59. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

His Mother Gave Birth while Standing

60. The Buddha told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When he was born, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin emerged from his mother’s right side, and he was focused and undisturbed. The Bodhisattva’s mother held onto a tree limb, neither sitting nor lying down. Four gods stood in front his mother and presented fragrant water. They said, ‘Oh, heavenly mother! Now you’ve given birth to a holy son. Don’t feel anguish over it!’ This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

61. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

The Bodhisattva Was Born Clean

62. The Buddha told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When he was born, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin emerged from his mother’s right side, and he was focused and undisturbed. His body was clean and not sullied by filth. It was like a man with eyesight putting a pure, bright jewel on white silk. Neither of them dirties the other because they are both pure. The Bodhisattva emerged from the womb in the same way. This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

63. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

The Bodhisattva Walked Seven Paces at Birth

64. The Buddha told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When he was born, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin emerged from his mother’s right side, and he was focused and undisturbed. Upon emerging from her right side, he fell to the ground and walked seven paces without anyone helping him. He looked all around in the four directions, raised his hand, and said, ‘Only I am exalted by both Heaven and Earth, for I will save sentient beings from birth, old age, illness, and death.’ This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

65. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

He Was Bathed in Warm and Cool Water

66. The Buddha told the monks, “This is the way it always is with buddhas. When he was born, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin emerged from his mother’s right side, and he was focused and undisturbed. Two streams of water sprang forth, one warm and one cool, which were provided for bathing him. This is the way it always is [with buddhas].”

67. The Bhagavān then spoke in verse:

The Fortune Tellers’ Prediction

68. “When the prince was first born, his father King Bandhuma summoned a group of fortune tellers and seers to examine the prince and determine his fortune or misfortune.[28]

69. “The fortune tellers accepted his command and examined the prince. Lifting his robe, they saw he had the full set of signs. They predicted, ‘Someone possessing these signs will have [one of] two destinies, without a doubt. If he remains at home, he’ll become a noble wheel-turning king. He’ll be the king of the four continents, and his four armies will be complete. He’ll rule with the correct Dharma without any tyranny, and he’ll be a blessing to the world. The seven treasures will come naturally to him, and he’ll have a thousand courageous sons. He’ll defeat foreign adversaries without using weapons, and there’ll be a great peace in the world. If he leaves home to train on the path, then he’ll achieve complete awakening and be given the ten epithets.’

70. “The fortune tellers then said to the king, ‘This son born to the King has the thirty-two signs. He’ll arrive at [one of] two places, without a doubt. If he stays at home, he’ll become a noble wheel-turning king. If he leaves home, he’ll achieve complete awakening and be given the ten epithets.’”

71. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

The Thirty-Two Signs of a Great Man

72. “His father the king repeated himself three times, asking the physiognomists, ‘Look again at the prince’s thirty-two signs. What are they called?’

73. “The fortune-tellers lifted the prince’s robe and described his thirty-two signs: ‘First, his feet are flat. The soles of his feet are level and full, and they step on the ground securely. Second, the soles of his feet are marked with wheels. Complete with a thousand spokes, they shine with many lights. Third, his hands and feet are webbed like the king of geese. Fourth, his hands and feet are soft like heavenly cloth. Fifth, his fingers and toes are unmatched in slenderness and length. Sixth, his heels are so full one never tires of looking at them. Seventh, his calves are straight up and down like a deer’s legs. Eighth, his bones are a chain, and his joints hook together like chain links. Ninth, his organ is hidden like that of a horse. Tenth, his hands hang down beyond his knees. Eleventh, each of his pores has a hair growing from it, the hairs curl to the right, and they’re the color of a dark blue beryl. Twelfth, his hair curls to the right, is blue in color, and turns upward. Thirteenth, his body is the color of gold. Fourteenth, his skin is fine and soft, and dirt doesn’t cling to it. Fifteenth, his shoulders are even, full, rounded, and attractive. Sixteenth, he has the svastika symbol on his chest. Seventeenth, his body is twice as long as a human. Eighteenth, his seven points are equally full. Nineteenth, his body’s length and breadth is like that of a banyan tree. Twentieth, he has rounded cheeks like a lion. Twenty-first, his breast is dignified like that of a lion. Twenty-second, he has forty teeth in his mouth. Twenty-third, he is dignified and symmetrical. Twenty-fourth, the gaps between his teeth are hidden. Twenty-fifth, his teeth are pure white and bright. Twenty-sixth, his throat is clean. Whatever food he eats, its flavor is always agreeable. Twenty-seventh, his tongue is so long and broad, it can lick his left or right ear. Twenty-eighth, his Brahmā voice is clear. Twenty-ninth, his eyes are deep blue. Thirtieth, he has eyes like a bull king that blink up and down together. Thirty-first, he has a white tuft of soft and shiny hair between his brows. It’s a fathom long when pulled, and it curls to the right when released, like a jeweled conch shell. Thirty-second, he has a fleshy knot on his crown. These are the thirty-two signs.’”

74. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

The Bodhisattva’s Early Life

75. The Buddha told the monks, “When he was born, Bodhisattva Vipaśyin was sheltered from cold, heat, wind, rain, and dust by gods in the sky, who held white parasols and jeweled fans for him.”

76. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

77. “His father, the King, provided him with four wetnurses: The first fed him milk, the second bathed him, and third rubbed him with incense, and the fourth entertained him. They joyously nurtured him without any neglect.”

78. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

79. “When he was a youth, the whole country’s men and women watched him without tire.”

80. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

81. “While he was a youth, the whole country’s men and women would pass him around and hold him up as though they were looking at a jeweled flower.”

82. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

83. “When he was born, the Bodhisattva’s eyes were unblinking like those of a Trāyastriṃśa god. He was named Vipaśyin because he didn’t blink.”

84. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

85. “When he was born, the Bodhisattva’s voice was clear, gentle, and harmonious like the voice of a kalaviṅka bird.”

86. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

87. “When he was born, the Bodhisattva’s vision could see clearly as far away as a yojana.”

88. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

89. “When he was born, the Bodhisattva grew up to adulthood and was educated in the way [of governing] in the royal hall. His favor reached the common people, and his reputation for virtue was heard far away.”

90. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

91. “At that point, the Bodhisattva wanted to go out sight-seeing, so he ordered his driver to prepare a chariot and horses to go tour a forest park. Once the chariot and horses were ready, the driver returned and said, ‘Now is a good time.’ The prince then rode in the precious chariot to the scenic park. While they were on the road, they saw an elderly man. His hair was white, his teeth had fallen out, and his wrinkled body was bent. He walked wearily with a cane and was short of breath.

92. “The prince asked his aide, ‘What sort of man is that?’

“He answered, ‘This is an old man.’

93. “The prince also asked, ‘What is “old”?’

“He answered, ‘Old age happens as the end of one’s life approaches. When there aren’t many years left, it’s called being old.’

94. “The prince asked, ‘Will I be likewise? Will I not escape this hardship?’

“He answered, ‘Yes, anyone born is sure to become old. It doesn’t matter if they are rich or poor.’

95. “The prince was disturbed and unhappy at that point. He told his driver to turn the chariot around and go back to the palace. He silently thought to himself, ‘To think I’ll also have to suffer being old!’”

96. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

97. “His father, the King, then asked the driver, ‘Did the prince enjoy his excursion?’

“He answered, ‘He didn’t enjoy it.’

98. “The King asked him why, and the driver replied, ‘We happened upon an old man on the road, which made him unhappy.’

99. “His father, the king, then thought silently to himself, ‘The fortune-tellers foretold that the prince would leave home, and now he isn’t happy. Is there nothing I can do? I’ll devise a way to make him stay in the inner palace and entertain him with the five desires. He’ll be delighted, which will prevent him from leaving home!’ He then decorated the palace’s guest quarters and selected some maidens to entertain the prince.”

100. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

101. “On another occasion after that, the prince again ordered his driver to prepare a chariot and horses for an excursion, and they encountered a sick man on the road. His body was limp, and his belly was huge. His face and eyes were dark, and he was lying alone in his own waste without anyone to look after him. His illness was so painful; he couldn’t speak.

102. “The prince looked back at his driver and said, ‘What sort of man is that?’

“He answered, ‘That is a sick man.’

103. “The prince asked, ‘What is ‘sickness’?’

“He answered, ‘Sickness is being attacked by one of myriad diseases. When a person is still alive and hasn’t died yet, they are called sick.’

104. “‘Will I be likewise? Haven’t I escape this hardship yet?’

“‘Yes, anyone born becomes sick. It doesn’t matter if they are rich or poor.’

105. “The prince was disturbed and unhappy. He told the driver to turn the chariot around and return to the palace. He thought silently to himself, ‘To think I’ll also have to suffer being sick!’”

106. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

107. “His father, the King, again asked the driver, ‘Did the prince enjoy his excursion?’

“He answered, ‘He didn’t enjoy it.’

108. “The king asked him why, and the driver answered, ‘We happened upon a sick man on the road, and he wasn’t happy about it.’

109. “His father, the King, thought, ‘The fortune-tellers foretold that the prince would leave home, and now he isn’t happy. Is there nothing I can do? I’ll devise a way to improve his entertainment. He’ll be delighted, which will prevent him from leaving home!’ The King then decorated the palace guest quarters and selected maidens to entertain the prince.”

110. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

111. “On another occasion, the prince ordered his driver to prepare a chariot and horses for an excursion, and they encountered a dead man on the road. Multi-colored banners were posted in front and behind his corpse, and his relatives and family were lamenting and crying as they sent it out of the city. The prince again asked, ‘What sort of man is that?’

“He answered, ‘That’s a dead man.’

112. “‘What exactly is “dead”?’

“‘Death is the end. Breath goes first, warmth goes next, and then the faculties decay. When a person dies, they go somewhere else and live in a separate family. Therefore, it’s called death.’

113. “The prince also asked the driver, ‘Will I be likewise? Haven’t I escaped this trouble?’

“He answered, ‘Yes, everyone born is sure to die. It doesn’t matter if they are rich or poor.’

114. “The prince was disturbed and unhappy. He told the driver to turn the chariot around and return to the palace. He silently thought, ‘To think I too will have to suffer this death!’”

115. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

116. “His father, the King, again asked the driver, ‘Did the prince enjoy his excursion?’

“He answered, ‘He didn’t enjoy it.’

117. “The King asked him why, and the driver answered, ‘We happened upon a dead man on the road, and he wasn’t happy about it.’

118. “His father, the King, thought to himself, ‘The fortune-tellers foretold that the prince would leave home, and now he isn’t happy. Is there nothing I can do? I’ll devise a way to improve his entertainment. He’ll be delighted, which will prevent him from leaving home!’ The King then decorated the palace guest quarters and selected maidens to entertain the prince.”

119. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

120. “On another occasion, he ordered his driver to prepare a chariot and horses for an excursion, and they encountered an ascetic on the road. He wore Dharma clothes and carried a bowl, looking at the ground as he walked. The prince asked his driver, ‘What sort of man is that?’

“His driver replied, ‘That is an ascetic.’

121. “The prince also asked, ‘What is an ascetic?’

“He answered, ‘An ascetic renounces love, leaves home, and cultivates the path. He controls his faculties so that he isn’t defiled by external desires. He’s kind to everyone, and he doesn’t do any harm. When he encounters suffering, he isn’t saddened. When he meets with pleasure, he isn’t delighted. He’s tolerant like the earth; therefore, he’s called an ascetic.’

122. “The prince said, ‘Excellent! This is the path is that truly severs worldly ties. It’s subtle, pure, and clear. This is the only way to happiness.’ He then ordered his driver to pull the chariot over [beside the ascetic].”

123. “The prince then asked the ascetic, ‘What’s the purpose of cutting off one’s hair and beard, putting on Dharma robes, and carrying a bowl?’

“The ascetic replied, ‘A person leaves home wanting to train their mind, forever part with dirtiness, kindly nurture living things, and do no harm. They quiet vain thoughts; their only work is the path.’

124. “The prince said, ‘Excellent! This path is the truest!’ He immediately ordered his driver, ‘Take my precious clothes and carriage and return them to the great King. I’m going to cut off my hair and beard, put on the three Dharma robes, and leave home to cultivate the path. Why is that? I want to train my mind, discard dirtiness, and purify my life in order to seek the methods of the path.’

125. “Thereupon, the driver drove the prince’s precious chariot and clothes back to his father, the King. Afterward, the prince cut off his hair and beard, put on the three Dharma robes, and left home to cultivate the path.”

126. The Buddha told the monks, “When he saw the elderly man and the sick man, the prince recognized the suffering of the world. When he saw the dead man, his feelings of attraction to the world ceased. Then, he saw the ascetic and the vastness of the great awakening. When he dismounted from his precious chariot, he walked away from bondage, step by step. This was how he genuinely left home; this was his genuine renunciation.

127. “The people of the country heard that the prince had cut off his hair and beard, put on Dharma robes, carried a bowl, and left home to cultivate the path. They said to each other, ‘This path must be genuine for the prince to give up his position as the country’s heir. That’s a serious thing to discard!’ Thereupon, 84,000 people in the country went to the prince wanting to become his disciples and leave home to cultivate the path.”

128. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

129. “The prince then accepted them [as disciples], and they traveled together, giving teachings in various places. From town to town and country to country, he was paid respects everywhere with the four types of service and support. The Bodhisattva thought, ‘The hustle and bustle of traveling the countries with a large assembly doesn’t suit me. When will I be free of these crowds of people? The genuine pursuit of the path is done in a secluded place; then, someone can fulfill their aspirations. In a quiet place, I could focus my efforts on cultivating the path.’

130. “He also thought, ‘Sentient beings are pitiable, always living in darkness and experiencing the physical frailties of birth, old age, illness, and death, that collection of myriad pains. Dying here, they’re born there, and they’re born here from elsewhere. As a result of this mass of suffering, they cycle around endlessly. When will I comprehend this mass of suffering and extinguish birth, old age, and death?’

131. “Again, he thought, ‘Where does birth and death come from? What’s the condition for their existence?’ He then wisely examined their source: ‘Old age and death comes from birth. Birth is the condition for old age and death. Birth arises from existence. Existence is the condition for birth. Existence arises from clinging. Clinging is the condition for existence. Clinging arises from craving. Craving is the condition for clinging. Craving arises from feeling. Feeling is the condition for craving. Feeling arises from contact. Contact is the condition for feeling. Contact arises from the six senses. The six senses are the condition for contact. The six senses arise from name and form. Name and form are the condition for the six senses. Name and form arise from awareness. Awareness is the condition for name and form. Awareness arises from volition. Volition is the condition for awareness. Volition arises from ignorance. Ignorance is the condition for volition.

132. “‘From the condition of ignorance, there’s volition. Volition is the condition for awareness. Awareness is the condition for name and form. Name and form is the condition for the six senses. The six senses are the condition for contact. Contact is the condition for feeling. Feeling is the condition for craving. Craving is the condition for clinging. Clinging is the condition for existence. Existence is the condition for birth. Birth is the condition for old age, illness, death, grief, sorrow, pain, and trouble. This whole mass of suffering exists based on the condition of birth. This is the formation of suffering.’

133. “When the Bodhisattva contemplated the formation of this mass of suffering, knowledge arose, vision arose, awakening arose, insight arose, comprehension arose, wisdom arose, and realization arose.

134. “The Bodhisattva contemplated this as well: ‘The absence of what would cause the absence of old age and death? The cessation of what would cause the cessation of old age and death?’

135. “He then wisely observed its origin: ‘Old age and death doesn’t exist because birth doesn’t exist. Old age and death cease because birth ceases. Birth doesn’t exist because existence doesn’t exist. Birth ceases because existence ceases. Existence doesn’t exist because clinging doesn’t exist. Existence ceases because clinging ceases. Clinging doesn’t exist because craving doesn’t exist. Clinging ceases because craving ceases. Craving doesn’t exist because feeling doesn’t exist. Craving ceases because feeling ceases. Feeling doesn’t exist because contact doesn’t exist. Feeling ceases because contact ceases. Contact doesn’t exist because the six senses don’t exist. Contact ceases because the six senses cease. The six senses don’t exist because name and form don’t exist. The six senses cease because name and form cease. Name and form don’t exist because awareness doesn’t exist. Name and form cease because awareness ceases. Awareness doesn’t exist because volition doesn’t exist. Awareness ceases because volition ceases. Volition doesn’t exist because ignorance doesn’t exist. Volition ceases because ignorance ceases.

136. “‘It’s because ignorance ceases that volition ceases. Awareness ceases because volition ceases. Name and form cease because awareness ceases. The six senses cease because name and form cease. Contact ceases because the six senses cease. Feeling ceases because contact ceases. Craving ceases because feeling ceases. Clinging ceases because craving ceases. Existence ceases because clinging ceases. Birth ceases because existence ceases. Old age, death, grief, sorrow, pain, and trouble cease because birth ceases.’

137. When the Bodhisattva contemplated the cessation of this mass of suffering, knowledge arose, vision arose, awakening arose, insight arose, comprehension arose, wisdom arose, and realization arose.”

138. “The Bodhisattva then observed these twelve causal conditions in forward and reverse order. When he truly knew and saw them, he achieved the supreme, correct, and complete awakening right there on his seat.”

139. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

140. “When Buddha Vipaśyin first achieved awakening, he often cultivated two contemplations: First was contemplation of safety, and second was contemplation of escape.”

141. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

142. “While in a quiet place, Buddha Vipaśyin also had this thought: ‘Now, I’ve attained this unsurpassed teaching that’s profound, subtle, hard to understand, hard to see, calming, pure, known by the wise, and not within the reach of ordinary fools. This is because sentient beings of different tenets and different views who accept different things, and have different trainings. Based on their different views, they each pursue their delights and work for their livelihood. They therefore can’t understand this profound dependent origination, but Nirvāṇa’s end of craving is doubly hard to know. If I were to teach it, they surely wouldn’t understand, and I’d be troubled by it.’ After having this thought, he remained silent and didn’t go on to teach the Dharma.

143. “Knowing what the Buddha Vipaśyin was thinking, the Brahma King thought to himself, ‘Now, it’ll be very sad when this world is destroyed. Buddha Vipaśyin has attained knowledge of this profound and subtle teaching, but he doesn’t want to teach it!’ In the time it takes a strong man to flex his arm, Brahmā instantly came down from his Brahma Heaven palace to stand in front of the Buddha. He bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet and withdrew to stand to one side.

144. “The Brahma King knelt on his right knee and saluted the Buddha with his palms together. He said, ‘Please, Bhagavān, use this time to teach the Dharma! These sentient beings today have weakened their defilements, their faculties are strong, they’re respectful, and they are readily educated. Fearing the afterlife and having no salvation from misdeeds, they can desist from their evil ways and be born in good destinies.’

145. “That Buddha told the Brahma King, ‘So it is, so it is! It’s as you say. I just thought to myself while in a quiet place, “The correct Dharma that I’ve attained is profound and subtle. If I taught it to others, they surely wouldn’t understand, and I’d be troubled by it. So, I’ll remain silent, not wanting to teach the Dharma. I’ve gone through countless eons of hardship without quitting and cultivated the unsurpassed practice. Now, I’ve won this hard to get Dharma for the first time. If I taught it to lustful, hateful, and ignorant sentient beings, they surely wouldn’t put it into practice. It would be pointless and wearisome. This teaching is subtle and contradicts the world. Sentient beings who are defiled by desire and benighted by foolishness can’t be confident about it. Brahma King, I observe this to be so. That’s why I’ve remained silent and don’t want to teach the Dharma.’

146. “The Brahma King repeated his entreaty three times in earnest: ‘Bhagavān, if the Dharma isn’t taught now, then it’ll be very sad when the world is destroyed. Please, Bhagavān, take this time to expound it. Don’t let sentient beings fall to other destinies!’

147. “The Bhagavān listened to the Brahma King repeat his entreaty three times, and then he looked at the world with his buddha eye. Sentient beings had weakened their defilements whether their faculties were sharp and dull, so teaching them would be hard with some and easy with others. Those who easily accepted the teaching feared their misdeeds in the afterlife, so they could desist from their evil ways and be born in good destinies. They were like utpala flowers, padma flowers, kumuda flowers, and puṇḍarīka flowers. Whether they’re beginning to grow from the muck but haven’t emerged from the water, they’ve grown enough to emerged from the water, or they’ve emerged from the water but have yet to bloom, they’ll easily bloom once they don’t have the water’s [muck] clinging to them. The world’s sentient beings were likewise.

148. “The Bhagavān told the Brahma King, ‘I do pity all of you. I will disclose the Dharma entrance of ambrosia now. This teaching is profound, subtle, and difficult to understand, but I will teach those who’ll believe, accept, and enjoy listening to it. I won’t teach those who’ll be troublesome or gain nothing from it.’

149. “When the Brahma King recognized that that Buddha had accepted his request, he rejoiced and celebrated. He circled the Buddha three times, bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet, and instantly disappeared.

150. “Not long after he was gone, the Tathāgata then thought to himself, ‘Now, who will be the first person I teach the Dharma?’ Then he thought, ‘I’ll go to Bandhuvatī. The King’s son Tiṣya and the prime minister’s son Khaṇḍa will be the first to whom I’ll reveal the Dharma entrance of ambrosia.’

151. “Thereupon, in the time it takes a strong man to flex his arm, the Bhagavān instantly disappeared from that tree of awakening and went to King’s deer preserve near Bandhuvatī. He prepared a seat there and sat down.”

152. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

153. “The Buddha Vipaśyin addressed the park’s warden, ‘Please go to the city and tell the King’s son Tiṣya and the prime minister’s son Khaṇḍa, “Did you know? The Buddha Vipaśyin is residing in the deer preserve. He would like to see you. It would be a good time for it.”

154. “The park’s warden accepted this instruction and left. He went to those two men and told them both what the Buddha had said. When the two had heard this, then went to the Buddha, bowed their heads at his feet, and withdrew to sit to one side.

155. “The Buddha gradually taught the Dharma, teaching, instructing, profiting, and delighting them. He discussed generosity, precepts, how to be born in heaven, that desire was bad and impure, and the trouble of the higher contaminants. He praised their escape as the most subtle, pure, and supreme.

156. “The Bhagavān then saw that those two men’s minds were softened, joyous, confident, and ready to accept the correct teaching. He taught them the noble truth of suffering, expounding and disclosing it. He discerned and interpreted the noble truth of suffering’s formation, the noble truth of suffering’s cessation, and the noble truth of suffering’s escape.

157. “The King’s son Tiṣya and the prime minister’s son Khaṇḍa were freed from dust and defilement right there on their seats, and their vision of the Dharma was purified. They were like a white cloth ready to accept a dye.

158. “At that moment, the spirit of the earth announced, ‘In the deer preserve of Bandhuvatī, the Tathāgata Vipaśyin has turned the unsurpassed Dharma wheel that couldn’t be turned by ascetics or priests, gods such as Māra and Brahmā, or any other worldly person.’ Thus, as it made the rounds, its voice was clearly heard by the four god kings … the Paranirmitavaśavartin gods. In an instant, its voice reached the Brahma heavens.”

159. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

160. “At that point, the King’s son Tiṣya and the prime minister’s son Khaṇḍa saw the Dharma and obtained its fruit truly and without pretense, and they became confident. They then said to Buddha Vipaśyin, ‘We’d like to cultivate the pure religious practice in the Tathāgata’s teaching!’

“The Buddha said, ‘Welcome, monks! My Dharma is pure and free. Cultivating it will bring an end to suffering.’

161. “Those two men then were given the full precepts. They hadn’t had those precepts long before the Tathāgata taught them three subjects: First was miraculous abilities, second was observing others’ minds, and third was admonishment. They then attained the freedom of the uncontaminated heart, and unshakable knowledge arose in them.

162. “At the time, a great many people in the city of Bandhuvatī heard about those two men who had left home to train on the path, put on Dharma robes, carried bowls, and purely cultivated the religious life. They said to each other, ‘That path must be genuine to make them both give up their stations of worldly prosperity. That’s a serious thing to discard!’

163. “In that city, there were 84,000 people who visited Buddha Vipaśyin in the deer preserve. They bowed their heads at his feet and withdrew to sit at one side. The Buddha gradually taught the Dharma, teaching, instructing, profiting, and delighting them. He discussed generosity, precepts, how to be born in heaven, that desire was bad and impure, and the trouble of the higher contaminants. He praised their escape as the most subtle, pure, and supreme.

164. “That Bhagavān then saw that the minds of this great assembly were softened, joyous, confident, and ready to accept the correct teaching. He then taught them the noble truth of suffering, expounding and disclosing it. He discerned and interpreted the noble truth of suffering’s formation, the noble truth of suffering’s cessation, and the noble truth of suffering’s escape.

165. “Those 84,000 people then became free of dust and defilement right there on their seats, and their vision of the Dharma was purified. They were like a white cloth ready to accept a dye. They saw the Dharma and obtained its fruit truly and without pretense, and they became confident. They said to the Buddha, ‘We’d like to cultivate the pure religious practice in the Tathāgata’s teaching!’

166. “The Buddha said, ‘Welcome, monks! My Dharma is pure and free. Cultivating it will bring an end to suffering.’

167. “Those 84,000 people then were given the full precepts. They hadn’t had those precepts long before the Tathāgata taught them three subjects: First was miraculous abilities, second was observing others’ minds, and third was admonishment. They then attained the freedom of the uncontaminated heart, and unshakable knowledge arose in them.

168. “Another 84,000 people heard that the Buddha was in the deer preserve and had turned the unsurpassed Dharma wheel that couldn’t be turned by ascetics or priests, gods such as Māra and Brahmā, or any other worldly person. They then went to Bandhuvatī to visit Buddha Vipaśyin, bowed their heads at his feet, and withdrew to sit to one side.”

169. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

170. “The Buddha taught the Dharma in the same way. Then, there were 168,000 people in Bandhuvatī who formed a great assembly of monks. The monks Tiṣya and Khaṇḍa rose up into the sky over that great assembly, and fire and water issued from their bodies. They performed such miracles and then taught the subtle Dharma for the assembly.

171. “The Tathāgata then thought to himself, ‘Now, there’s a great assembly of 168,000 monks in this city. They ought to travel from place to place in pairs for six years. When they return to the city, I’ll teach them the full precepts.’

172. “The Śuddhāvāsa gods then knew what the Tathāgata was thinking. In the time it takes a strong man to flex his arm, they disappeared from their heaven and instantly reappeared in front of the Bhagavān. They bowed their heads at his feet and withdrew to stand to one side. That instant, they said to the Buddha, ‘So it is, Bhagavān! There’s a great assembly of monks in this city. They ought to travel from place to place in pairs for six years. When they return to the city, teach them the full precepts. We will keep them safe and prevent anyone from taking advantage of them.’

“When he heard what the gods said, the Tathāgata silently accepted it.

173. “The Śuddhāvāsa gods saw the Buddha silently give his consent. They bowed at the Buddha’s feet and instantly disappeared, returning to their heaven above. Not long after they left, the Buddha told the monks, ‘Now, there’s a great assembly of monks in the city. You ought to each go out traveling and teaching. After six years, return and gather for the teaching of the precepts.’

“After accepting the Buddha’s teaching, the monks then took their robes and bowls, bowed to the Buddha, and departed.”

174. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

175. “A year later, the Śuddhāvāsa gods told the monks, ‘Since you’ve been traveling a year has passed. Five years remain. Remember, after six years have passed, you are to return to the city for the teaching of the precepts.’

176. “In this way, the sixth year arrived, and the gods again told them, ‘A full six years have passed. You should return for the teaching of the precepts.’

177. After hearing what the gods said, the monks gathered up their robes and bowls and returned to Bandhuvatī. They went to Buddha Vipaśyin in the deer preserve, bowed their heads at his feet, and withdrew to sit to one side.”

178. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

179. “That Tathāgata then rose into the air above the great assembly in a cross-legged sitting posture and taught them the Precepts Sūtra: ‘Tolerance is best. The Buddha teaches that Nirvāṇa is the highest. One doesn’t become an ascetic by cutting off their hair and beard and then harming others.’

180. “They hadn’t gone far from the Buddha when the Śuddhāvāsa gods spoke these verses:

181. “After reciting these verses, they instantly disappeared.”

182. The Bhagavān then told the monks, “I thought to myself, ‘Once, I was on Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa at Rājagṛha, and this thought occurred to me, “I’ve been born everywhere but the Śuddhāvāsa Heaven. If I were born in that heaven, I wouldn’t return to this world.”’

183. “Monks, I’ve also had this thought: ‘I want to go up to the Avṛha Heaven above.’ In the time it takes for a strong man to flex his arm, I then disappeared here and appeared in that heaven.

184. “When they saw me arrive, the gods there bowed their heads and stood to one side. They said to me, ‘We were disciples of Tathāgata Vipaśyin. We were reborn here because that Buddha’s instruction. We recite the history of that buddha as well as that of Buddha Śikhin, Buddha Viśvabhū, Buddha Krakucchanda, Buddha Kanakamuni, Buddha Kāśyapa, and Buddha Śākyamuni. They were our teachers. We were reborn here because of their training.’

185. “They also recited the history of buddhas, those gods who were born … in the Akaniṣṭha Heaven. It was the same there.”

186. The Buddha then spoke in verse:

187. After he had taught this Sūtra of the Great Legend, the monks who heard what the Buddha taught rejoiced and approved.

Notes

  1. There are a number of ways to read the Chinese title 大本. “Great Root,” “Great Beginning,” or “Great Origin” are possible meanings. One might wonder if it translates something different than S. Mahāvadāna, but we can find more support for the traditional title at the conclusion of the sūtra, where it was translated as 大因縁. 因縁 is itself ambiguous, translating a number of Indic words, but S. avadāna is among them. In any case, I’ve translated the title as “Great Legend” on the assumption that the original title was in fact Mahāvadāna. [back]
  2. This is sūtra no. 1 of the Dīrgha Āgama (T1.1.1b12-10c29). It’s a direct parallel to the Pali Mahāpadāna Sutta (DN 14) and the Chinese 七佛經 (T2). There’s also a reconstructed Sanskrit Mahāvadāna Sūtra based on manuscripts found in Turkestan.
    In addition to these full parallels, Chinese 毘婆尸佛經 (T3) is a separate text titled The Legend of Vipaśyin, and Chinese T4 七佛父母姓字經 (T4) and EĀ 48.4 are independent Seven Buddhas sūtras. The existence of these two texts suggests that the Mahāvadāna Sūtra may be an expansion of an earlier Seven Buddhas Sūtra. In any case, they serve as additional parallels to the first half of DĀ 1.
    T2 and T3 are a special case. Both were produced by the same Chinese translator working during the opening years of the Song era (late 10th c. CE). T2 ends abruptly without a proper conclusion, and T3 begins abruptly without a proper introduction. Taken together, they appear to belong to a complete edition of the Mahāvadāna Sūtra. If this is true, some material in the middle may have been lost, which caused it to be divided into two fragments. Āgamas typically fell into obscurity in China and weren’t well maintained, so this would be a plausible explanation.
    There may also be a Mūlasarvāstivāda edition that has survived among the fragments of a Sanskrit DĀ that was discovered, but a reconstructed manuscript has not been published yet to my knowledge.
    All told, then, I can compare versions of this sūtra from the Theravāda (DN 14), Dharmaguptaka (DĀ 1), and as many as four other undetermined early Buddhist canons (Turkestan S., T2/T3, T4, and EĀ 48.4). [back]
  3. Flowering Grove Hut. The Chinese translation is in general agreement with P. Karerikuṭikā, which means “Musk Rose Tree Hut.” This place-name is missing from the S. and the other C. translations, which only mention Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park. The P. edition mentions both locations. [back]
  4. Flowering Grove Hall. Ch. 花林堂. All editions except for EĀ 48.4 agree on the name of this place. In the present text, S. maṇḍalavāṭa has been translated simply as “hall,” which is likely a simplification by the Chinese translator given the existence of the placename in extant G. texts. Edgerton (BHSD p. 416) reports that a maṇḍalavāṭa (lit. “circular garland”) was not a building but a circular area fenced off like a courtyard to serve as a sacred space. [back]
  5. such principles. C. 如是法, S. evaṃdharmāṇa. In the S. edition, the parallel passage indicates that dharma is plural, so I have translated accordingly. [back]
  6. nature of things. Ch. 法性. Typically, this C. term translated something like S. dharmatā, but both the P. and S. editions have instead dharmadhātu (“realm of the Dharma”), and the C. verses that follow will agree with this. Dharmadhātu here seems to refer a pre-existent source of the Dharma that’s accessed by buddhas when they awaken to it. [back]
  7. correct faith. Ch. 平等信 (= 正信?). There was sometimes confusion between S. samyag (“correct”), S. sama (“equal”), and the prefix S. sam- (“complete, thorough”) in early Chinese translations, perhaps because they were nearly the same in G. (saṃma, sama, and sam-, respectively). I’ve translated 平等信 assuming the original was the equivalent to S. samyag śraddha. The expression occurs often in the S. edition, but there are no parallels to this particular passage. Uncorrected, the passage reads “… with the same faith.” [back]
  8. The text of DĀ has random omissions throughout that appear to be the result of inattentive copying. Perhaps the person writing down the translation as it was given orally couldn’t keep up with the pace, or a later copyist may have been impatient with formulaic repetitions. Whatever the case may be, I have added back obvious omissions, placing the lost text in [] to indicate when I do so. [back]
  9. kalaviṅka. Ch. 哀鸞. This is a C. translation of S. kalaviṅka, which literally means something like “mourning phoenix.” The kalaviṅka was a semi-mythical bird depicted as living in mountains and singing gentle songs, even before it has hatched. Prosaically, it also referred to songbirds like the Indian cuckoo. [back]
  10. These life spans during each Buddha’s time agree with all extant parallels except for EĀ 48.4. There, Vipaśyin lived for 84,000 years (which agrees with DĀ 1’s verse below), and Krakucchanda and Kanakamuni lived for 50,000 and 40,000 years, respectively. [back]
  11. Here, again, all extant parallels agree on these details except for EĀ 48.4. However, only the present text combines the clan types and surnames of the buddhas into a single section. The other versions divide these details between two sections. [back]
  12. patala tree … mango tree … sal tree … sirisa tree … cluster fig tree … banyan tree … sacred fig tree. Ch. 波波羅 … 分陀利 … 娑羅 … 尸利沙 … 烏暫婆羅 … 尼拘律 … 鉢多, S. pāṭali … puṇḍarīka … sāla … śirīṣa … udumbara … nyagrodha … aśvattha. These names agree with those found in the other parallels, but the transliterations of pāṭali and aśvattha are unclear.
    C. 波波羅 suggests G. *papala, which may have been a variant pronunciation, or the C. may be corrupt. The G. attestation of S. Pāṭaliputra is G. Palaḍiputra. This would be a case of G. transposing consonants (swapping the ṭ and l and converting ṭ to ḍ). It’s notable, too, that the verse that follows translit. the name as 婆羅 (“pala”), which could correspond to palaḍi (dropping the final syllable to fit the meter of the verse). The translit. in EĀ 48.4 is similar (波羅利 = “palali”), but in that case the -ḍ- has likely become -ḷ-. I have assumed the original was likely equivalent to S. pāṭali and moved on with my life.
    C. 鉢多 is a well-known translit. for G. patra (“bowl”) but that would make little sense here. Observing that S. aśva = G. aśpa, I can only speculate that the initial syllable aś- has been contracted, leaving us with a translit. of G. ’pattha. I’ve adopted the S. equivalent. [back]
  13. While there was substantial agreement among the parallels on these numbers, there was some confusion that took place, especially regarding Vipaśyin’s first assembly. Only the present text and EĀ 48.4 agree that it was 168,000. This figure is supported by the story that will be later told about his teaching career, where his first congregation is converted in two waves of 84,000 people.
    This story about Vipaśyin converting his first congregation was apparently not shared by all traditions, for the other parallels have varying figures for this first congregation: 6.8 million (DN 14), 6.2 million (Turkestan Skt.), 62,000 (T2), and 100,000 (T4). It should be noted that these changes between tens of thousands and millions can occur by the addition of a word or two to the Indic way of spelling out numbers. Another oddity is found in T2, which gives 80 million for Śikhin’s second congregation.
    All told, it’s a fascinating example of how random corruptions crept into these ancient texts in passages where arbitrary changes could appear legitimate. [back]
  14. This section is not found in EĀ 48.4, but the names of these disciples are remarkably consistent across this and the other four parallels that included it.
    DĀ 1 has a number of variations peculiar to it: S. Bhujiṣya (G. *Bhuyo) and S. Śroṇa are transposed in comparison to the P. and S. versions of the list. It has G. Utama for the first S. Uttara, and S. Śrāvaṇa (G. *Ṣavana) instead of S. Śroṇa.
    S. Saṃjīva appears to become S. Saṃjñin (G. *Saṃñi), which happens again when it serves as a name of a Hell in DĀ 30, Chapter 4. There, it was translated as 想 (S. Saṃjña). In both cases, this would be the result of dropping the -va in G.
    Finally, S. Vidhura is translit. as G. *Viru, which may have been G. *Virudha if the last syllable was dropped and the consonants were transposed.
    These differences are likely the result of translations between Prakrits and some slight textual disorder. I’ve adopted the S. equivalents of these names. [back]
  15. All the parallels include this section, but EĀ 48.4 has an entirely different list other than concluding with Ānanda. Otherwise, there are only minor variations between the parallels (e.g., the S. parallel has Bhadrika instead of Buddhija).
    Except for Ānanda, DĀ 1 translates this list of names, making precise readings difficult, but the meanings generally agree with the other parallels. For example, P. Sabbamitta appears to be translated as “good friend” (善友), which is usu. S. kalyāṇamitra or perhaps sumitra. I’ve converted these translations to S. literally, but they could be freer interpretations of the names found in P. and S. The most divergent reading is “Peace” (安和) where the parallels have S. Svastika (P. Sotthija). This Chinese word is used parallel to S. Kṣema later on. [back]
  16. Only two other parallels include this section: the S. version and Taisho 4. DĀ 1 translates these names, and they match those found in Taisho 4 slightly better than the S. edition. I.e., Taisho 4 agrees with DĀ 1’s translation of S. Uttara (上勝) where the S. edition has S. Pratāpana. [back]
  17. This section detailing the names of each Buddha’s parents, capitol city, and reigning kings is found in all parallels except EĀ 48.4. While there are quite a few disagreements in the names we find in the other four parallels, the confusion most often involves the names of mothers, with those of fathers being a lesser issue. Given the degree of agreement on the names of fathers and cities, it seems that the mothers may have been an addition made independently by different traditions. [back]
  18. Universal Vision. C. 遍眼. This was a translation of S. Vipaśyin. [back]
  19. Prabhāvāti. C. 光曜. Strictly speaking, the C. translates only S. prabhā, but the other parallels that agree have S. prabhāvātī. The situation is similar with the capitol’s name. The C. translates only S. aruṇa, but all the parallels list S. aruṇavātī. T2 disagrees with the others in naming the mother S. aruṇī, which mirrors the naming of Vipaśyin’s parents as the male and female of the same name. [back]
  20. Yaśovatī. C. 稱戒. This translation lit. means “famous precept” or “famous morality.” 稱 is straightforward as a translation of S. yaśa. T4 transliterates the mother’s name as S. yaśovatī (耶舍越提), and the S. edition here transposes the names S. uttarā and yaśovatī. DN 14 has P. vassavatī, which could be a variation of the same. Given this, my suspicion is that 戒 here translated G. vati read as equiv. to P. vatti > S. vṛtti (c.f., G. vaji = P. vajji = S. vṛji), which can mean “moral conduct.” I’ve found no attestation of this in G. sources, but it would explain the C. translation. Finally, T2 disagrees with the rest, giving S. prabhāvātī (鉢囉婆嚩底) as her name. [back]
  21. Yajñadatta. C. 祀得. This translation lit. means “sacrifice obtained,” which would match S. yajñadatta well enough. This name occurs in the next section in the other parallels.
    Suśākhā. C. 善枝. This translates lit. to “Good Branch,” which translates S. su- and -śākhā separately. Supporting this reading is T4, which translit. the mother’s name as S. suśākhā (隨舍迦). DN 14 and T2 agree on S. viśākhā, and the S. edition again transposes names, this time swapping S. viśākhā and dhanavatī.
    Finally, the C. translates the capitol’s name as simply 安和 (S. kṣema), but the other parallels have S. kṣemāvatī. The exception is T2, which appears to translit. S. kṣemokṣemā (剎謨剎摩). [back]
  22. Mahādatta. C. 大徳. This translation lit. means “great virtue.” The straightforward conversion to S. would be mahādatta, which is a name attested in Pali sources. DĀ 1 is alone in this reading, however: The other parallels have S. yajñadatta or variations thereof.
    Sūttara. C. 善勝. This translates lit. to “good superiority,” which would translate S. su- and -uttara separately. The S. name means “very superior.” The other parallels all have S. uttarā, except for the S. edition, which has transposed S. uttarā with S. yaśovatī.
    Śubha. C. 清淨. This translates to “pure,” which seems likely to be G. śuha (S. śubha). DN 14 and the S. edition have S. śobha (P. sobha). [back]
  23. Kṛpī. C. 汲毗 (EMC. kɪəp-bii = G. *kivi). This would seem to be equiv. to S. kṛpī, which disagrees with P. kikī and S. edition’s kṛkī. T2 agrees with DN 14 and S. edition, but T4 appears to transliterate G. kiṣida (= S. kr̥ṣṭa). [back]
  24. Mahāmāyā. C. 大清淨妙. This translation lit. means “great pure wonder.” The other parallels agree that her name was S. maya (DN 14) or S. mahāmāyā (the others). It’s curious that DĀ 1 has “pure wonder,” but perhaps this was a translation of S. māyā. [back]
  25. This re-introduction signals that a second discourse is beginning. In DN 14, the second introduction is quite verbose. Not only does it replicate the introduction to the Seven Buddhas discourse, but the Buddha summarizes all of the biographical details for Vipaśyin before moving on to telling the audience any new information.
    The second introduction in Taisho 2 also depicts the monks holding another discussion that’s again overheard by the Buddha. The Turkstan Sanskrit edition lacks a segue between the two halves of the sūtra.
    It should also be noted that Taisho 3 begins the story of Bodhisattva Vipaśyin without an introduction and picks up at the point of his encountering the four signs and deciding to leave home.
    Here in DĀ 1, the second introduction has been minimized, but it still remains. [back]
  26. From this section down to the beginning of the story of the Bodhisattva’s thirty-two signs, DĀ 1 has ten brief sections on his mother’s pregnancy and his birth. There is a strong agreement between this version and what we find in Taisho 2. They share the same order and differ only in each adding a different section. I.e., Taisho 2 has a section depicting the gods announcing to each other that the Bodhisattva has descended into a mother’s womb, and it lacks the section depicting the Bodhisattva walking seven paces at birth. Otherwise, DĀ 1 and Taisho 2 share exactly the same outline of this section of the story. In fact, DĀ 1 mentions the Bodhisattva’s name being announced in its verse, which may be an oblique reference to the section included only in Taisho 2.
    This close correspondence between DĀ 1 and Taisho 2 stops after this part of the story. This is because Taisho 2 lacks the elaborate storytelling about the Buddha’s thirty-two signs, his leaving home, his awakening, and his teaching career afterward. DĀ 1, like DN 14 and the other parallels, has added all of this material. Taisho 2, which looks like an older and simpler version, covers all of this (except for the Buddha’s teaching career) with six brief sections of the same size and format as the ones covering the Bodhisattva’s birth.
    In contrast to Taisho 2’s simplicity, Taisho 3 tells an elaborate story that begins with the Bodhisattva encountering the four signs. It therefore contains no parallel with this section of the story about his mother and birth.
    DN 14 and the Sanskrit edition have both added a few sections to the older core of this part of the story. DN 14 adds five sections: on his mother enjoying the five sense desires, on his mother dying and being reborn in Tuṣita, on the length of her pregnancy, on the gods delivering him, and on the gods catching him before he hit the ground. On the first addition, only DĀ 1 and DN 14 mention that his mother had no lust; the other two parallels only say she was unattached to sense desires. DN 14 created a separate section for her lack of lust, and DĀ 1 added it to the section on her detachment from desires in general. There is some disorder in DN 14 compared to the other parallels, too. For instance, the omens of light and earthquakes when he is born is placed at the end of the section rather than at the middle when the description of his birth begins.
    The Sanskrit edition also adds more sections to the core story, but differently than DN 14. It adds a section on a stream flowing from a well and the gods making offerings of flowers and music to the Bodhisattva. It also divides a section into two that in the other versions mentions both his mother being in comfort and seeing the Bodhisattva in her womb. [back]
  27. elephant. C. 大龍, S. mahānāga. S. nāga typically refers to serpents, either mythological or ordinary, but it did sometimes refer to elephants. Given that this nāga walks, mahānāga here must mean a bull elephant. [back]
  28. At this point, the story of the Bodhisattva begins to replicate the events we find in the epics of the Buddha’s life like the Buddhacarita and Lalitavistara. DĀ 1, DN 14, and the S. edition all agree in the main in this section, differing only in the degree of verbosity and giving lists of the signs that differ in their order and level of detail. T2 differs from the other versions in that it has one section stating that the Bodhisattva was born with the thirty-two signs, and then another section about his father summoning the fortune tellers. Neither section included a list of signs.
    fortune tellers and seers. C. 相師及諸道術, P. nemitta brāhmaṇa, S. brāhmaṇa naimitta. The parallel expression in DN 14 reads “fortune tellers and priests.” A couple passages later in DĀ indicate that 道術 (lit. “techniques of the Way”) refers to methods of meditation (cf. T1.7a15-16 and T1.23c13-17). If the people summoned were simply priests, I would expect one of the usual translations of S. brāhmaṇa found in DĀ, but 道術 only occurs here as a profession and as techniques of meditation in the above two passages. As a result, it would seem the C. translator understood the term to mean someone who had attained spiritual knowledge through meditation. I’ve translated 道術 here as “seer” to approximate this. [back]

Translator: Charles Patton

Last Revised: 13 May 2023

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